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<H1>A Beginner's Guide to HTML</H1>

<P>
This is a primer for producing documents in HTML, the markup language
used by the World Wide Web. 

<UL>
<LI><A HREF="#A1.1">Acronym Expansion</A>
<LI><A HREF="#A1.2">What This Primer Doesn't Cover</A>
<LI><A HREF="#A1.3">Creating HTML Documents</A>
    <UL>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.1">The Minimal HTML Document</A>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.2">Basic Markup Tags</A>
      <UL>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.2.1">Titles</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.2.2">Headings</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.2.3">Paragraphs</A>
      </UL>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.3">Linking to Other Documents</A>
      <UL>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.3.1">Relative Links Versus Absolute Pathnames</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.3.2">Uniform Resource Locator</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.3.3">Anchors to Specific Sections in Other Documents</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.3.3.4">Anchors to Specific Sections Within
          the Current Document</A>
      </UL>
    </UL>
<LI><A HREF="#A1.4">Additional Markup Tags</A>
    <UL>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.4.1">Lists</A>
      <UL>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.4.1.1">Unnumbered Lists</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.4.1.2">Numbered Lists</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.4.1.3">Definition Lists</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.4.1.4">Nested Lists</A>
      </UL>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.4.2">Preformatted Text</A>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.4.3">Extended Quotes</A>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.4.4">Addresses</A>
    </UL>
    
<LI><A HREF="#A1.5">Character Formatting</A>
    <UL>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.5.1">Physical Versus Logical: 
         Use Logical Tags When Possible</A>
      <UL>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.5.1.1">Logical Styles</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.5.1.2">Physical Styles</A>
      </UL>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.5.2">Using Character Tags</A>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.5.3">Special Characters</A>
      <UL>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.5.3.1">Escape Sequences</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.5.3.2">Forced Line Breaks</A>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.5.3.3">Horizontal Rules</A>
      </UL>
    </UL>
<LI><A HREF="#A1.6">In-line Images</A>
      <UL>
      <LI><A HREF="#A1.6.1">Alternate Text for Viewers
          That Can't Display Images</A>
      </UL>
<LI><A HREF="#A1.7">External Images, Sounds, and Animations</A>
<LI><A HREF="#A1.8">Troubleshooting</A>
    <UL>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.8.1">Avoid Overlapping Tags</A>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.8.2">Embed Anchors and Character Tags,
        But Not Anything Else</A>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.8.3">Check Your Links</A>
    </UL>
<LI><A HREF="#A1.9">A Longer Example</A>
<LI><A HREF="#A1.10">For More Information</A>
    <UL>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.10.1">Fill-out Forms</A>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.10.2">Style Guides</A>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.10.3">Other Introductory Documents</A>
    <LI><A HREF="#A1.10.4">Additional References</A>
    </UL>
</UL>

<H2><A NAME = "A1.1">Acronym Expansion</A></H2>
<DL COMPACT>
<DT><I>WWW</I>
<DD>World Wide Web (or Web, for short).
<DT><I>SGML</I>
<DD>Standard Generalized Markup Language  --  this is a standard for
    describing markup languages.
<DT><CITE>DTD</CITE>
<DD>Document Type Definition  --  this is a specific markup language,
    written using SGML.
<DT><CITE>HTML</CITE>
<DD>HyperText Markup Language  --  HTML is a SGML DTD. In practical
    terms, HTML is a collection of styles (indicated by markup tags)
    that define the various components of a World Wide Web document.
HTML was invented by Tim Berners-Lee while at CERN. He is now director
of the W3 Consortium.
</DL>

<H2><A NAME = "A1.2">What This Primer Doesn't Cover</A></H2>
<P>
This primer assumes that you have:

<UL>
<LI>at least a passing knowledge of how to use NCSA Mosaic or some
    other Web browser 
<LI>a general understanding of how Web servers and client browsers
    work 
<LI>access to a Web server for which you would like to produce HTML
    documents, or that you wish to produce HTML documents for personal
    use
</UL>

<H2><A NAME = "A1.3">Creating HTML Documents</A></H2>
<P>
HTML documents are in plain (also known as ASCII) text format and can
be created using any text editor (e.g., Emacs or vi on UNIX machines).
A couple of Web browsers (tkWWW for X Window System machines and CERN's
Web browser for NeXT computers) include rudimentary HTML editors in
a WYSIWYG environment. There are also some WYSIWIG editors available
now (e.g. HotMetal for Sun Sparcstations, HTML Edit for Macintoshes).
You may wish to try one of them first before delving into the details
of HTML.
<BLOCKQUOTE>
    <I>You can preview a document in progress with NCSA Mosaic (and
    some </I><I>other Web browsers). Open it with the </I><B>Open Local
    </B><I>command under the </I><B>File</B><I> menu. </I>
    
    <P>
    <I>After you edit the source HTML file, save the changes. Return
    to NCSA </I><I>Mosaic and </I><B>Reload</B><I> the document. The
    changes are reflected in the on-</I><I>screen display.</I>
    
</BLOCKQUOTE>

<H3><A NAME = "A1.3.1">The Minimal HTML Document</A></H3>
<P>
Here is a bare-bones example of HTML: 

<PRE>
    &lt;TITLE&gt;The simplest HTML example&lt;/TITLE&gt;
    &lt;H1&gt;This is a level-one heading&lt;/H1&gt;
    Welcome to the world of HTML. 
    This is one paragraph.&lt;P&gt;
    And this is a second.&lt;P&gt;
</PRE>

<A HREF=MinimalHTML.html>Click here</A> to see the formatted version
of the example.

<P>
HTML uses markup tags to tell the Web browser how to display the text.
The above example uses:

<UL>
<LI>the <SAMP>&lt;TITLE&gt;</SAMP> tag (and corresponding <SAMP>&lt;/TITLE&gt;</SAMP>
    tag), which specifies the title of the document
<LI>the <SAMP>&lt;H1&gt;</SAMP> header tag (and corresponding <SAMP>&lt;/H1&gt;</SAMP>)
<LI>the <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP> paragraph-separator tag
</UL>

<P>
HTML tags consist of a left angle bracket (<SAMP>&lt;</SAMP>), (a ``less
than'' symbol to mathematicians), followed by name of the tag and closed
by a right angular bracket (<SAMP>&gt;</SAMP>). Tags are usually paired,
e.g. <SAMP>&lt;H1&gt;</SAMP> and <SAMP>&lt;/H1&gt;</SAMP>. The ending
tag looks just like the starting tag except a slash (/) precedes the
text within the brackets. In the example, <SAMP>&lt;H1&gt;</SAMP> tells
the Web browser to start formatting a level-one heading; <SAMP>&lt;/H1&gt;</SAMP>
tells the browser that the heading is complete. 

<P>
The primary exception to the pairing rule is the <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP>
tag. There is no such thing as <SAMP>&lt;/P&gt;</SAMP>.

<P>
<STRONG>NOTE:</STRONG><I> HTML is not case sensitive. </I><SAMP>&lt;title&gt;</SAMP><I>
is equivalent to </I><SAMP>&lt;TITLE&gt;</SAMP><I> or </I><SAMP>&lt;TiTlE&gt;</SAMP><I>.
</I>

<P>
Not all tags are supported by all World Wide Web browsers. If a browser
does not support a tag, it just ignores it. 

<H3><A NAME = "A1.3.2">Basic Markup Tags</A></H3>
<H4><A NAME = "A1.3.2.1">Title</A></H4>
<P>
Every HTML document should have a title. A title is generally displayed
separately from the document and is used primarily for document identification
in other contexts (e.g., a WAIS search). Choose about half a dozen
words that describe the document's purpose. 
<BLOCKQUOTE>
    <I>In the X Window System and Microsoft Windows versions of NCSA
    </I><I>Mosaic, the </I><B>Document Title</B><I> field is at the
    top of the screen just below the </I><I>pulldown menus. In NCSA
    Mosaic for Macintosh, text tagged as </I><SAMP>&lt;TITLE&gt;</SAMP>
    <I>appears as the window title.</I>
    
</BLOCKQUOTE>

<H4><A NAME = "A1.3.2.2">Headings</A></H4>
<P>
HTML has six levels of headings, numbered 1 through 6, with 1 being
the most prominent. Headings are displayed in larger and/or bolder
fonts than normal body text. The first heading in each document should
be tagged <SAMP>&lt;H1&gt;</SAMP>. The syntax of the heading tag is:

<P>
<SAMP>&lt;H</SAMP><VAR>y</VAR><SAMP>&gt;</SAMP><VAR>Text of heading</VAR><SAMP>
&lt;/H</SAMP><VAR>y</VAR><SAMP> &gt;</SAMP>

<P>
where <VAR>y</VAR> is a number between 1 and 6 specifying the level
of the heading. 

<P>
For example, the coding for the ``Headings'' section heading above
is 

<PRE>
    &lt;H3&gt;Headings&lt;/H3&gt;
</PRE>

<H5><A NAME = "A1.3.2.2.1">Title versus first heading</A></H5>
<P>
In many documents, the first heading is identical to the title. For
multipart documents, the text of the first heading should be suitable
for a reader who is already browsing related information (e.g., a chapter
title), while the title tag should identify the document in a wider
context (e.g., include both the book title and the chapter title, although
this can sometimes become overly long). 

<H4><A NAME = "A1.3.2.3">Paragraphs</A></H4>
<P>
Unlike documents in most word processors, carriage returns in HTML
files aren't significant. Word wrapping can occur at any point in your
source file, and multiple spaces are collapsed into a single space.
(There are couple of exceptions; space following a <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP>
or <SAMP>&lt;H</SAMP><VAR>y</VAR><SAMP>&gt;</SAMP> tag, for example,
is ignored.) Notice that in the bare-bones example, the first paragraph
is coded as 

<PRE>
    Welcome to HTML.
    This is the first paragraph. &lt;P&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
In the source file, there is a line break between the sentences. A
Web browser ignores this line break and starts a new paragraph only
when it reaches a <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP> tag. 

<P>
<STRONG>Important:</STRONG> You must separate paragraphs with <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP>.
The browser ignores any indentations or blank lines in the source text.
HTML relies almost entirely on the tags for formatting instructions,
and without the <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP> tags, the document becomes one
large paragraph. (The exception is text tagged as ``preformatted,''
which is explained below.) For instance, the following would produce
identical output as the first bare-bones HTML example: 

<PRE>
    &lt;TITLE&gt;The simplest HTML example&lt;/TITLE&gt;&lt;H1&gt;This is a level 
    one heading&lt;/H1&gt;Welcome to the world of HTML. This is one 
    paragraph.&lt;P&gt;And this is a second.&lt;P&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
However, to preserve readability in HTML files, headings should be
on separate lines, and paragraphs should be separated by blank lines
(in addition to the <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP> tags).
<BLOCKQUOTE>
    <I>NCSA Mosaic handles &lt;P&gt; by ending the current paragraph
    and insert</I><I>ing a blank line. </I>
    
</BLOCKQUOTE>

<P>
In HTML+, a successor to HTML currently in development, <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP>
becomes a ``container'' of text, just as the text of a level-one heading
is ``contained'' within<SAMP>&lt;H1&gt; ... </SAMP><SAMP>&lt;/H1&gt;</SAMP>:

<PRE>
    &lt;P&gt;
    This is a paragraph in HTML+.
    &lt;/P&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
The difference is that the <SAMP>&lt;/P&gt;</SAMP> closing tag can
always be omitted. (That is, if a browser sees a <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP>,
it knows that there must be an implied <SAMP>&lt;/P&gt;</SAMP> to end
the previous paragraph.) In other words, in HTML+, <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP>
is a beginning-of-paragraph marker.

<P>
The advantage of this change is that you will be able to specify formatting
options for a paragraph. For example, in HTML+, you will be able to
center a paragraph by coding

<PRE>
    <SAMP>&lt;P ALIGN=CENTER&gt;</SAMP>
    This is a centered paragraph. This is HTML+, so you can't do it yet.
</PRE>

<P>
This change won't effect any documents you write now, and they will
continue to look just the same with HTML+ browsers.

<H3><A NAME = "A1.3.3">Linking to Other Documents</A></H3>
<P>
The chief power of HTML comes from its ability to link regions of text
(and also images) to another document. The browser highlights these
regions (usually with color and/or underlines) to indicate that they
are hypertext links (often shortened to <DFN>hyperlinks</DFN> or simply
<DFN>links</DFN>).

<P>
HTML's single hypertext-related tag is <SAMP>&lt;A&gt;</SAMP>, which
stands for <DFN>anchor</DFN>. To include an anchor in your document:

<OL>
<LI>Start the anchor with <SAMP>&lt;A</SAMP> . (There's a space after
    the <CODE>A</CODE>.)
<LI>Specify the document that's being pointed to by entering the parameter
    <SAMP>HREF=&quot;</SAMP><VAR>filename</VAR><SAMP>&quot;</SAMP>
    followed by a closing right angle bracket: <SAMP>&gt;</SAMP>
<LI>Enter the text that will serve as the hypertext link in the current
    document.
<LI>Enter the ending anchor tag: <SAMP>&lt;/A&gt;</SAMP>.
</OL>

<P>
Here is an sample hypertext reference: 

<PRE>
    &lt;A HREF=&quot;MaineStats.html&quot;&gt;Maine&lt;/A&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
This entry makes the word ``Maine'' the hyperlink to the document <SAMP>MaineStats.html</SAMP>,
which is in the same directory as the first document. You can link
to documents in other directories by specifying the <DFN>relative path</DFN>
from the current document to the linked document. For example, a link
to a file <SAMP>NJStats.html</SAMP> located in the subdirectory <SAMP>AtlanticStates</SAMP>
would be:

<PRE>
    &lt;A HREF=&quot;AtlanticStates/NJStats.html&quot;&gt;New Jersey&lt;/A&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
These are called <VAR>relative links</VAR>. You can also use the absolute
pathname of the file if you wish. Pathnames use the standard UNIX syntax.

<H4><A NAME = "A1.3.3.1">Relative Links Versus Absolute Pathnames</A></H4>
<P>
In general, you should use relative links, because

<OL>
<LI>You have less to type.
<LI>It's easier to move a group of documents to another location, because
    the relative path names will still be valid.
</OL>

<P>
However, use absolute pathnames when linking to documents that are
not directly related. For example, consider a group of documents that
comprise a user manual. Links within this group should be relative
links. Links to other documents (perhaps a reference to related software)
should use full path names. This way, if you move the user manual to
a different directory, none of the links would have to be updated.

<H4><A NAME = "A1.3.3.2">Uniform Resource Locator</A></H4>
<P>
The World Wide Web uses Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) to specify
the location of files on other servers. A URL includes the type of
resource being accessed (e.g., gopher, WAIS), the address of the server,
and the location of the file. The syntax is:

<P>
<VAR>scheme</VAR><SAMP>://</SAMP><VAR>host.domain</VAR><SAMP>[:</SAMP><VAR>port</VAR><SAMP>]/</SAMP><VAR>path</VAR><SAMP>/</SAMP><VAR>filename</VAR>

<P>
where <VAR>scheme</VAR> is one of

<DL COMPACT>
<DT><SAMP>file</SAMP>
<DD>
<DT>
<DD>a file on your local system, or a file on an anonymous FTP server
    
<DT><SAMP>http</SAMP>
<DD>a file on a World Wide Web server 
<DT><SAMP>gopher</SAMP>
<DD>a file on a Gopher server 
<DT><SAMP>WAIS</SAMP>
<DD>a file on a WAIS server 
<DT><SAMP>news</SAMP>
<DD>an Usenet newsgroup
<DT><SAMP>telnet</SAMP>
<DD>a connection to a Telnet-based service
</DL>

<P>
The <VAR>port</VAR> number can generally be omitted. (That means unless
someone tells you otherwise, leave it out.)

<P>
For example, to include a link to this primer in your document, you
would use

<PRE>
    &lt;A HREF = &quot;http://www.ncsa.uiuc.edu/General/Internet/WWW/HTMLPrimer.html&quot;&gt; 
    NCSA's Beginner's Guide to HTML&lt;/A&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
This would make the text ``NCSA's Beginner's Guide to HTML'' a hyperlink
to this document.

<P>
For more information on URLs, look at

<UL>
<LI><A HREF = "http://www.w3.org/hypertext/WWW/Addressing/Addressing.html">
    <CITE>WWW Names and Addresses, URIs, URLs, URNs</CITE></A>, written
    by people at CERN
<LI><A HREF = "http://www.ncsa.uiuc.edu/demoweb/url-primer.html">
    <CITE>A Beginner's Guide to URLs</CITE></A>, located on the NCSA Mosaic
    <B>Help</B> menu
</UL>

<H4><A NAME = "A1.3.3.3">Links to Specific Sections in Other Documents</A></H4>
<P>
Anchors can also be used to move to a particular section in a document.
Suppose you wish to set a link from document A and a specific section
in document B. (Call this file <SAMP>documentB.html</SAMP>.) First
you need to set up a <DFN>named anchor</DFN> in document B. For example,
to set up an anchor named ``Jabberwocky'' to document B, enter 

<PRE>
    Here's &lt;A NAME = &quot;Jabberwocky&quot;&gt;some text&lt;/a&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
Now when you create the link in document A, include not only the filename,
but also the named anchor, separated by a hash mark (#).

<PRE>
    This is my &lt;A HREF = &quot;documentB.html#Jabberwocky&quot;&gt;link&lt;/A&gt; to document B.
</PRE>

<P>
Now clicking on the word ``link'' in document A sends the reader directly
to the words ``some text'' in document B. 

<H4><A NAME = "A1.3.3.4">Links to Specific Sections Within the Current Document</A></H4>
<P>
The technique is exactly the same except the filename is omitted. 

<P>
For example, to link to the Jabberwocky anchor from within the same
file (Document B), use

<PRE>
    This is &lt;A HREF = &quot;#Jabberwocky&quot;&gt;Jabberwocky link&lt;/A&gt; from within Document B.
</PRE>

<H2><A NAME = "A1.4">Additional Markup Tags</A></H2>
<P>
The preceding is sufficient to produce simple HTML documents. For more
complex documents, HTML has tags for several types of lists, preformatted
sections, extended quotations, character formatting, and other items.

<H3><A NAME = "A1.4.1">Lists</A></H3>
<P>
HTML supports unnumbered, numbered, and definition lists. 

<H4><A NAME = "A1.4.1.1">Unnumbered Lists</A></H4>
<P>
To make an unnumbered list,

<OL>
<LI>Start with an opening list <SAMP>&lt;UL&gt;</SAMP> tag. 
<LI>Enter the <SAMP>&lt;LI&gt;</SAMP> tag followed by the individual
    item. (No closing <SAMP>&lt;/LI&gt;</SAMP> tag is needed.) 
<LI>End with a closing list <SAMP>&lt;/UL&gt;</SAMP> tag. 
</OL>

<P>
Below an example two-item list: 

<PRE>
    &lt;UL&gt;
    &lt;LI&gt; apples
    &lt;LI&gt; bananas
    &lt;/UL&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
The output is:

<UL>
<LI>apples 
<LI>bananas 
</UL>

<P>
The <SAMP>&lt;LI&gt;</SAMP> items can contain multiple paragraphs.
Just separate the paragraphs with the <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP> paragraph
tags.

<H4><A NAME = "A1.4.1.2">Numbered Lists</A></H4>
<P>
A numbered list (also called an ordered list, from which the tag name
derives) is identical to an unnumbered list, except it uses <SAMP>&lt;OL&gt;</SAMP>
instead of <SAMP>&lt;UL&gt;</SAMP>. The items are tagged using the
same <SAMP>&lt;LI&gt;</SAMP> tag. The following HTML code

<PRE>
    &lt;OL&gt;
    &lt;LI&gt; oranges
    &lt;LI&gt; peaches
    &lt;LI&gt; grapes
    &lt;/OL&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
produces this formatted output:

<OL>
<LI>oranges 
<LI>peaches 
<LI>grapes 
</OL>

<H4><A NAME = "A1.4.1.3">Definition Lists </A></H4>
<P>
A definition list usually consists of alternating a term (abbreviated
as <SAMP>DT</SAMP>) and a definition (abbreviated as <SAMP>DD</SAMP>).
Web browsers generally format the definition on a new line.

<P>
The following is an example of a definition list: 

<PRE>
    &lt;DL&gt;
    &lt;DT&gt; NCSA
    &lt;DD&gt; NCSA, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications,
         is located on the campus of the University of Illinois 
         at Urbana-Champaign. NCSA is one of the participants in the
         National MetaCenter for Computational Science and Engineering.
    &lt;DT&gt; Cornell Theory Center
    &lt;DD&gt; CTC is located on the campus of Cornell University in Ithaca,
         New York. CTC is another participant in the National MetaCenter
         for Computational Science and Engineering.
    &lt;/DL&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
The output looks like: 

<DL COMPACT>
<DT>NCSA
<DD>NCSA, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, is located
    on the campus of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
    NCSA is one of the participants in the National MetaCenter for
    Computational Science and Engineering. 
<DT>Cornell Theory Center 
<DD>CTC is located on the campus of Cornell University in Ithaca, New
    York. CTC is another participant in the National MetaCenter for
    Computational Science and Engineering. 
</DL>

<P>
The <SAMP>&lt;DT&gt;</SAMP> and<SAMP> &lt;DD&gt;</SAMP> entries can
contain multiple paragraphs (separated by <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP> paragraph
tags), lists, or other definition information.

<H4><A NAME = "A1.4.1.4">Nested Lists</A></H4>
<P>
Lists can be arbitrarily nested, although in practice you probably
should limit the nesting to three levels. You can also have a number
of paragraphs, each containing a nested list, in a single list item.

<P>
 An example nested list: 

<PRE>
    &lt;UL&gt;
    &lt;LI&gt; A few New England states:
        &lt;UL&gt;
        &lt;LI&gt; Vermont
        &lt;LI&gt; New Hampshire
        &lt;/UL&gt;
    &lt;LI&gt; One Midwestern state:
        &lt;UL&gt;
        &lt;LI&gt; Michigan
        &lt;/UL&gt;
    &lt;/UL&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
The nested list is displayed as 

<UL>
<LI>A few New England states: 
    <UL>
    <LI>Vermont 
    <LI>New Hampshire 
    </UL>
<LI>One Midwestern state: 
    <UL>
    <LI>Michigan 
    </UL>
</UL>

<H3><A NAME = "A1.4.2">Preformatted Text</A></H3>
<P>
Use the<SAMP> &lt;PRE&gt;</SAMP> tag (which stands for ``preformatted'')
to generate text in a fixed-width font and cause spaces, new lines,
and tabs to be significant. (That is, multiple spaces are displayed
as multiple spaces, and lines break in the same locations as in the
source HTML file.) This is useful for program listings. For example,
the following lines 

<PRE>
    &lt;PRE&gt;
      #!/bin/csh                           
      cd $SCR                             
      cfs get mysrc.f:mycfsdir/mysrc.f   
      cfs get myinfile:mycfsdir/myinfile   
      fc -02 -o mya.out mysrc.f           
      mya.out                              
      cfs save myoutfile:mycfsdir/myoutfile 
      rm *                                
    &lt;/PRE&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
display as

<PRE>
      #!/bin/csh                           
      cd $SCR                             
      cfs get mysrc.f:mycfsdir/mysrc.f   
      cfs get myinfile:mycfsdir/myinfile   
      fc -02 -o mya.out mysrc.f           
      mya.out                              
      cfs save myoutfile:mycfsdir/myoutfile 
      rm *
</PRE>

<P>
Hyperlinks can be used within <SAMP>&lt;PRE&gt;</SAMP> sections. You
should avoid using other HTML tags within <SAMP>&lt;PRE&gt;</SAMP>
sections, however.

<P>
Note that because &lt;, &gt;, and &amp; have special meaning in HTML,
you have to use their escape sequences (<SAMP>&amp;lt;</SAMP>, <SAMP>&amp;gt;</SAMP>,
and <SAMP>&amp;amp;</SAMP>, respectively) to enter these characters.
See the section <A HREF = "#A1.5.3">
Special Characters</A> for more information.

<H3><A NAME = "A1.4.3">Extended Quotations</A></H3>
<P>
Use the <SAMP>&lt;BLOCKQUOTE&gt;</SAMP> tag to include quotations in
a separate block on the screen. Most browsers generally indent to separate
it from surrounding text.

<P>
An example:

<PRE>
    &lt;BLOCKQUOTE&gt;
    I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the
    American dream. &lt;P&gt;
    I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and 
    live out the true meaning of its creed. We hold these truths 
    to be self-evident that all men are created equal. &lt;P&gt;
    &lt;/BLOCKQUOTE&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
The result is:
<BLOCKQUOTE>
    I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American
    dream.
    
    <P>
    I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out
    the true meaning of its creed. We hold these truths to be self-evident
    that all men are created equal.
    
</BLOCKQUOTE>

<H3><A NAME = "A1.4.4">Addresses</A></H3>
<P>
The <SAMP>&lt;ADDRESS&gt;</SAMP> tag is generally used to specify the
author of a document and a means of contacting the author (e.g., an
email address). This is usually the last item in a file. 

<P>
For example, the last line of the online version of this guide is 

<PRE>
    &lt;ADDRESS&gt;
    A Beginner's Guide to HTML / NCSA / pubs@ncsa.uiuc.edu
    &lt;/ADDRESS&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
The result is
<ADDRESS>A Beginner's Guide to HTML / NCSA / pubs@ncsa.uiuc.edu </ADDRESS>

<P>
<STRONG>NOTE:</STRONG> <SAMP>&lt;ADDRESS&gt;</SAMP> is <EM>not</EM>
used for postal addresses. See ``Forced Line Breaks'' on page 10 to
see how to format postal addresses.

<H2><A NAME = "A1.5">Character Formatting</A></H2>
<P>
You can code individual words or sentences with special styles. There
are two types of styles: logical and physical. <DFN>Logical styles</DFN>
tag text according to its meaning, while <DFN>physical styles</DFN>
specify the specific appearance of a section. For example, in the preceding
sentence, the words ``logical styles'' was tagged as a ``definition.''
The same effect (formatting those words in italics), could have been
achieved via a different tag that specifies merely ``put these words
in italics.''

<H3><A NAME = "A1.5.1">Physical Versus Logical: Use Logical Styles When Possible</A></H3>
<P>
If physical and logical styles produce the same result on the screen,
why are there both? We devolve, for a couple of paragraphs, into the
philosophy of SGML, which can be summed in a Zen-like mantra: ``Trust
your browser.''

<P>
In the ideal SGML universe, content is divorced from presentation.
Thus, SGML tags a level-one heading as a level-one heading, but does
not specify that the level-one heading should be, for instance, 24-point
bold Times centered on the top of a page. The advantage of this approach
(it's similar in concept to style sheets in many word processors) is
that if you decide to change level-one headings to be 20-point left-justified
Helvetica, all you have to do is change the definition of the level-one
heading in the presentation device (i.e., your World Wide Web browser).

<P>
The other advantage of logical tags is that they help enforce consistency
in your documents. It's easier to tag something as <SAMP>&lt;H1&gt;</SAMP>
than to remember that level-one headings are 24-point bold Times or
whatever. The same is true for character styles. For example, consider
the <SAMP>&lt;STRONG&gt;</SAMP> tag. Most browsers render it in bold
text. However, it is possible that a reader would prefer that these
sections be displayed in red instead. Logical styles offer this flexibility.

<H4><A NAME = "A1.5.1.1">Logical Styles</A></H4>
<DL COMPACT>
<DT><SAMP>&lt;DFN&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>for a word being defined. Typically displayed in italics. (<DFN>NCSA
    </DFN><DFN>Mosaic</DFN> is a World Wide Web browser.)
<DT><SAMP>&lt;EM&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>for emphasis. Typically displayed in italics. (<EM>Watch out for
    pick</EM><EM>pockets</EM>.)
<DT><SAMP>&lt;CITE&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>for titles of books, films, etc. Typically displayed in italics.
    (<CITE>A </CITE><CITE>Beginner's Guide to HTML</CITE>) 
<DT><SAMP>&lt;CODE&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>for snippets of computer code. Displayed in a fixed-width font.
    (The <SAMP>&lt;stdio.h&gt;</SAMP> header file) 
<DT> <SAMP>&lt;KBD&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>for user keyboard entry. Should be displayed in a bold fixed-width
    font, but many browsers render it in the plain fixed-width font.
    (Enter <KBD>passwd</KBD> to change your password.)
<DT><SAMP>&lt;SAMP&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>for computer status messages. Displayed in a fixed-width font.
    (<SAMP>Segmentation fault: Core dumped.</SAMP>) 
<DT><SAMP>&lt;STRONG&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>for strong emphasis. Typically displayed in bold. (<STRONG>Important</STRONG>)
    
<DT><SAMP>&lt;VAR&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>for a ``metasyntactic'' variable, where the user is to replace
    the variable with a specific instance. Typically displayed in italics.
    (<KBD>rm</KBD> <VAR>filename</VAR> deletes the file.)
</DL>

<H4><A NAME = "A1.5.1.2">Physical Styles</A></H4>
<DL COMPACT>
<DT><SAMP>&lt;B&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>bold text
<DT><SAMP>&lt;I&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>italic text
<DT><SAMP>&lt;TT&gt;</SAMP>
<DD>typewriter text, e.g. fixed-width font.
</DL>

<H3><A NAME = "A1.5.2">Using Character Tags</A></H3>
<P>
To apply a character style,

<OL>
<LI>Start with <SAMP>&lt;</SAMP><VAR>tag</VAR><SAMP>&gt;</SAMP>, where<SAMP>
    </SAMP><VAR>tag</VAR> is the desired character formatting tag,
    to indicate the beginning of the tagged text.
<LI>Enter the tagged text.
<LI>End the passage with <SAMP>&lt;/</SAMP><VAR>tag</VAR><SAMP>&gt;</SAMP>.
</OL>

<H3><A NAME = "A1.5.3">Special Characters</A></H3>
<H4><A NAME = "A1.5.3.1">Escape Sequences</A></H4>
<P>
Four characters of the ASCII character set -- the left angle bracket
(&lt;), the right angle bracket (&gt;), the ampersand (&amp;) and the
double quote (&quot;) -- have special meaning within HTML and therefore
cannot be used ``as is'' in text. (The angle brackets are used to indicate
the beginning and end of HTML tags, and the ampersand is used to indicate
the beginning of an escape sequence.)

<P>
To use one of these characters in an HTML document, you must enter
its <DFN>escape </DFN><DFN>sequence</DFN> instead:

<DL COMPACT>
<DT><SAMP>&amp;lt;</SAMP> 
<DD>the escape sequence for &lt; 
<DT><SAMP>&amp;gt;</SAMP>
<DD>the escape sequence for &gt; 
<DT><SAMP>&amp;amp;</SAMP>
<DD>the escape sequence for &amp;
<DT><SAMP>&amp;quot;</SAMP>
<DD>the escape sequence for &quot;
</DL>

<P>
Additional escape sequences support accented characters. For example:

<DL COMPACT>
<DT><SAMP>&amp;ouml;</SAMP>
<DD>the escape sequence for a lowercase o with an umlaut: &ouml;
    
<DT><SAMP>&amp;ntilde;</SAMP>
<DD>the escape sequence for a lowercase n with an tilde: &ntilde; 
<DT><SAMP>&amp;Egrave;</SAMP>
<DD>the escape sequence for an uppercase E with a grave accent: &Egrave;
    
</DL>

<P>
<A HREF = "http://www.w3.org/hypertext/WWW/MarkUp/ISOlat1.html"> A full 
list of supported characters</A> is available.

<P>
<STRONG>NOTE:</STRONG> Unlike the rest of HTML, the escape sequences
are case sensitive. You cannot, for instance, use &amp;LT; instead
of &amp;lt;.

<H4><A NAME = "A1.5.3.2">Forced Line Breaks</A></H4>
<P>
The <SAMP>&lt;BR&gt;</SAMP> tag forces a line break with no extra space
between lines. (By contrast, most browsers format the <SAMP>&lt;P&gt;</SAMP>
paragraph tag with an additional blank line to more clearly indicate
the beginning the new paragraph.)

<P>
One use of <SAMP>&lt;BR&gt;</SAMP> is in formatting addresses:

<PRE>
    National Center for Supercomputing Applications&lt;BR&gt;
    605 East Springfield Avenue&lt;BR&gt;
    Champaign, Illinois 61820-5518&lt;BR&gt;
</PRE>

<H4><A NAME = "A1.5.3.3">Horizontal Rules</A></H4>
<P>
The <SAMP>&lt;HR&gt; tag </SAMP>produces a horizontal line the width
of the browser window.

<H2><A NAME = "A1.6">In-line Images</A></H2>
<P>
Most Web browsers can display in-line images (that is, images next
to text) that are in X Bitmap (XBM) or GIF format. Each image takes
time to process and slows down the initial display of the document,
so generally you should not include too many or overly large images.

<P>
To include an in-line image, use

<PRE>
    &lt;IMG SRC=<VAR>image_URL</VAR>&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
where <VAR>image_URL</VAR> is the URL of the image file. The syntax
for <SAMP>IMG SRC </SAMP>URLs is identical to that used in an anchor
<SAMP>HREF</SAMP>. If the image file is a GIF file, then the filename
part of <VAR>image_URL </VAR><STRONG>must</STRONG> end with <SAMP>.gif</SAMP>.
Filenames of X Bitmap images must end with <SAMP>.xbm</SAMP>.

<P>
<IMG SRC = "Graphics/RandomPic.gif" ALT = "">By default the bottom
of an image is aligned with the text as shown in this paragraph. 

<P>
<IMG SRC = "Graphics/RandomPic.gif" ALT = "" ALIGN = TOP>
Add the <SAMP>ALIGN=TOP</SAMP>
option if you want the browser to align adjacent text with the top
of the image as shown in this paragraph. The full in-line image tag
with the top alignment is: 

<PRE>
    &lt;IMG ALIGN=top SRC=<VAR>image_URL</VAR>&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
<IMG SRC = "Graphics/RandomPic.gif" ALT = "" ALIGN = MIDDLE>
<SAMP>ALIGN=MIDDLE</SAMP>
aligns the text with the center of the image.

<H3><A NAME = "A1.6.1">Alternate Text for Browsers That Can't Display Images</A></H3>
<P>
Some World Wide Web browsers, primarily those that run on VT100 terminals,
cannot display images. The <SAMP>ALT</SAMP> option allows you to specify
text to be displayed when an image cannot be. For example:

<PRE>
    &lt;IMG SRC = &quot;UpArrow.gif&quot; ALT = &quot;Up&quot;&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
where <SAMP>UpArrow.gif </SAMP>is the picture of an upward pointing
arrow. With NCSA Mosaic and other graphics-capable viewers, the user
sees the up arrow graphic. With a VT100 browser, such as lynx, the
user sees the word ``Up.''

<H2><A NAME = "A1.7">External Images, Sounds, and Animations</A></H2>
<P>
You may want to have an image open as a separate document when a user
activates a link on either a word or a smaller, in-line version of
the image included in your document. This is considered an external
image and is useful if you do not wish to slow down the loading of
the main document with large in-line images.

<P>
To include a reference to an external image, use 

<PRE>
    &lt;A HREF = <VAR>image_URL</VAR>&gt;link anchor&lt;/A&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
Use the same syntax is for links to external animations and sounds.
The only difference is the file extension of the linked file. For example,

<P>
<SAMP>&lt;A HREF = &quot;QuickTimeMovie.mov&quot;&gt;link anchor&lt;/A&gt;</SAMP>

<P>
specifies a link to a QuickTime movie. Some common file types and their
extensions are:

<DL COMPACT>
<DT><STRONG>File Type</STRONG>
<DD><STRONG>Extension</STRONG>
<DT>Plain text
<DD><SAMP>.txt</SAMP>
<DT>HTML document
<DD><SAMP>.html</SAMP>
<DT>GIF image
<DD><SAMP>.gif</SAMP>
<DT>TIFF image
<DD><SAMP>.tiff</SAMP>
<DT>XBM bitmap image
<DD><SAMP>.xbm</SAMP>
<DT>JPEG image
<DD><SAMP>.jpg</SAMP> or <SAMP>.jpeg</SAMP>
<DT>PostScript file
<DD><SAMP>.ps</SAMP>
<DT>AIFF sound
<DD><SAMP>.aiff</SAMP>
<DT>AU sound
<DD><SAMP>.au</SAMP>
<DT>QuickTime movie
<DD><SAMP>.mov</SAMP>
<DT>MPEG movie
<DD><SAMP>.mpeg</SAMP> or <SAMP>.mpg</SAMP>
</DL>

<P>
Make sure your intended audience has the necessary viewers. Most UNIX
workstations, for instance, cannot view QuickTime movies. 

<H2><A NAME = "A1.8">Troubleshooting</A></H2>
<H3><A NAME = "A1.8.1">Avoid Overlapping Tags</A></H3>
<P>
Consider this snippet of HTML:

<PRE>
    &lt;B&gt;This is an example of &lt;DFN&gt;overlapping&lt;/B&gt; HTML tags.&lt;/DFN&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
The word ``overlapping'' is contained within both the <SAMP>&lt;B&gt;</SAMP>
and <SAMP>&lt;DFN&gt;</SAMP> tags. How does the browser format it?
You won't know until you look, and different browsers will likely react
differently. In general, avoid overlapping tags.

<H3><A NAME = "A1.8.2">Embed Anchors and Character Tags, But Nothing Else</A></H3>
<P>
It is acceptable to embed anchors within another HTML element:

<PRE>
    &lt;H1&gt;&lt;A HREF = &quot;Destination.html&quot;&gt;My heading&lt;/A&gt;&lt;/H1&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
<EM>Do not</EM> embed a heading or another HTML element within an anchor:

<PRE>
    &lt;A HREF = &quot;Destination.html&quot;&gt;
    &lt;H1&gt;My heading&lt;/H1&gt;
    &lt;/A&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
Although most browsers currently handle this example, it is forbidden
by the official HTML and HTML+ specifications, and will not work with
future browsers.

<P>
Character tags modify the appearance of other tags:

<PRE>
    &lt;UL&gt;&lt;LI&gt;&lt;B&gt;A bold list item&lt;/B&gt;
        &lt;UL&gt;
        &lt;LI&gt;&lt;I&gt;An italic list item&lt;/I&gt;
    &lt;/UL&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
However, avoid embedding other types of HTML element tags. For example,
it is tempting to embed a heading within a list, in order to make the
font size larger:

<PRE>
    &lt;UL&gt;&lt;LI&gt;&lt;H1&gt;A large heading&lt;/H1&gt;
        &lt;UL&gt;
        &lt;LI&gt;&lt;H2&gt;Something slightly smaller&lt;/H2&gt;
    &lt;/UL&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
Although some browsers, such as NCSA Mosaic for the X Window System,
format this construct quite nicely, it is unpredictable (because it
is undefined) what other browsers will do. For compatibility with all
browsers, avoid these kinds of constructs.

<P>
What's the difference between embedding a <SAMP>&lt;B&gt;</SAMP> within
a <SAMP>&lt;LI&gt;</SAMP> tag as opposed to embedding a <SAMP>&lt;H1&gt;</SAMP>
within a <SAMP>&lt;LI&gt;</SAMP>? This is again a question of SGML.
The semantic meaning of <SAMP>&lt;H1&gt;</SAMP> is that it's the main
heading of a document and that it should be followed by the content
of the document.Thus it doesn't make sense to find a <SAMP>&lt;H1&gt;</SAMP>
within a list.

<P>
Character formatting tags also are generally not additive. You might
expect that

<PRE>
    &lt;B&gt;&lt;I&gt;some text&lt;/I&gt;&lt;/B&gt;
</PRE>

<P>
would produce bold-italic text. On some browsers it does; other browsers
interpret only the innermost tag (here, the italics).

<H3><A NAME = "A1.8.3">Check Your Links</A></H3>
<P>
When an <SAMP>&lt;IMG&gt;</SAMP> tag points at an image that does not
exist, a dummy image is substituted. When this happens, make sure that
the referenced image does in fact exist, that the hyperlink has the
correct information in the URL, and that the file permission is set
appropriately (world-readable).

<H2><A NAME = "A1.9">A Longer Example</A></H2>
<P>
Here is a longer example of an HTML document: 

<PRE>
    &lt;HEAD&gt;
    &lt;TITLE&gt;A Longer Example&lt;/TITLE&gt;
    &lt;/HEAD&gt;
    &lt;BODY&gt;
    &lt;H1&gt;A Longer Example&lt;/H1&gt;
    This is a simple HTML document. This is the first
    paragraph. &lt;P&gt;
    This is the second paragraph, which shows special effects.  This is a 
    word in &lt;I&gt;italics&lt;/I&gt;.  This is a word in &lt;B&gt;bold&lt;/B&gt;.
    Here is an in-lined GIF image: &lt;IMG SRC = &quot;myimage.gif&quot;&gt;. 
    &lt;P&gt;
    This is the third paragraph, which demonstrates links.  Here is 
    a hypertext link from the word &lt;A HREF = &quot;subdir/myfile.html&quot;&gt;foo&lt;/A&gt;
    to a document called &quot;subdir/myfile.html&quot;. (If you 
    try to follow this link, you will get an error screen.) &lt;P&gt; 
    &lt;H2&gt;A second-level header&lt;/H2&gt;
    Here is a section of text that should display as a 
    fixed-width font: &lt;P&gt;
    &lt;PRE&gt;
        On the stiff twig up there
        Hunches a wet black rook
        Arranging and rearranging its feathers in the rain ...
    &lt;/PRE&gt;
    This is a unordered list with two items: &lt;P&gt;
    &lt;UL&gt;
    &lt;LI&gt; cranberries
    &lt;LI&gt; blueberries
    &lt;/UL&gt;
    This is the end of my example document. &lt;P&gt;
    &lt;ADDRESS&gt;Me (me@mycomputer.univ.edu)&lt;/ADDRESS&gt;
    &lt;/BODY&gt;
</PRE>

<A HREF=LongerExample.html>Click here</A> to see the formatted version.

<P>
In addition to tags already discussed, this example also uses the <SAMP>&lt;HEAD&gt;
... &lt;/HEAD&gt; </SAMP>and <SAMP>&lt;BODY&gt; ... &lt;/BODY&gt;</SAMP>
tags, which separate the document into introductory information about
the document and the main text of the document. These tags don't change
the appearance of the formatted document at all, but are useful for
several purposes (for example, NCSA Mosaic for Macintosh 2.0, for example,
allows you to browse just the header portion of document before deciding
whether to download the rest), and it is recommended that you use these
tags.

<H2><A NAME = "A1.10">For More Information</A></H2>
<P>
This guide is only an introduction to HTML and not a comprehensive
reference. Below are additional sources of information.

<H3><A NAME = "A1.10.1">Fill-out Forms</A></H3>
<P>
One major feature not discussed here is fill-out forms, which allows
users to return information to the World Wide Web server. For information
on fill-out forms, look at this
<A HREF = "/SDG/Software/Mosaic/Docs/fill-out-forms/overview.html"> Fill-out
Forms Overview</A>

<H3><A NAME = "A1.10.2">Style Guides</A></H3>
<P>
The following offer advice on how to write ``good'' HTML:

<UL>
<LI><A HREF = "http://www.willamette.edu/html-composition/strict-html.html">
    <CITE>Composing Good HTML</CITE></A>
<LI>
<A HREF = "http://www.w3.org/hypertext/WWW/Provider/Style/Introduction.html">
    CERN's style guide for online hypertext</A>
</UL>

<H3><A NAME = "A1.10.3">Other Introductory Documents</A></H3>
These cover similar information as this guide:
<UL>
<LI><A HREF = "http://www.ucc.ie/info/net/htmldoc.html">
    <CITE>How to Write HTML Files</CITE></A>
<LI><A HREF = "http://melmac.corp.harris.com/about_html.html">
    <CITE>Introduction to HTML</CITE></A>
</UL>

<H3><A NAME = "A1.10.4">Additional References</A></H3>
<UL>
<LI><A HREF = "http://kuhttp.cc.ukans.edu/lynx_help/HTML_quick.html">
    <CITE>The HTML Quick Reference Guide</CITE></A>, 
    which provides a comprehensive listing of HTML codes
<LI><A HREF = "http://www.w3.org/hypertext/WWW/MarkUp/MarkUp.html">
    The official HTML specification</A>
<LI><A HREF = "http://www.w3.org/hypertext/WWW/MarkUp/SGML.html">A 
    description of SGML</A>, the Standard Generalized Markup Language
<LI><A HREF 
= "http://www.ietf.cnri.reston.va.us/html.charters/html-charter.html">
<cite>The HTML Working Group of the IETF</cite></A>.
</UL>
<HR>
<ADDRESS>
National Center for Supercomputing Applications / pubs@ncsa.uiuc.edu
</ADDRESS>
</BODY>

